Recent Progress, Challenges and Future Directions of High-Temperature Wave-Absorbing Materials
Haohui Hao
,
Xinlei Wang
,
Yang Lyu
,
Wenzheng Zhang
,
Fei Li
,
Baoxi Zhang
,
Ruixiang He
,
Yuhao Fang
,
Chunlin Wang
,
Xiaomeng Fan
,
Ping Hu
,
Xinghong Zhang
a Suzhou Laboratory, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, China
b Science and Technology on Thermostructural Composite Materials Laboratory, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, 710072, China
c School of Mechanics, Civil Engineering and Architecture, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, 710072, China
d National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Advanced Composites in Special Environments, and Center for Composites Materials and Structures, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150080, China
Corresponding author:
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Received
Revised
Accepted
Published Online
2026-07-02
2026-07-30
2026-07-30
2026-08-07
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Abstract
The development of electromagnetic (EM) wave-absorbing materials is crucial for applications spanning information communication, equipment protection, and advanced defense systems. As operational environments extend toward high-speed and high-temperature regimes, a distinct class of high-temperature wave-absorbing materials has emerged, where EM response is no longer governed solely by intrinsic material properties but is strongly coupled with thermal activation effects and phase instability. The purpose of this review is to establish a comprehensive understanding of the key factors that govern high-temperature wave absorption and to identify design principles that can bridge intrinsic EM optimization with practical service reliability. First, this review clarifies the temperature-dependent evolution of intrinsic EM parameters, especially the loss of magnetic response above the Curie temperature, the drift of complex permittivity, and the resulting conflict between impedance matching and dielectric attenuation. Strategies for temperature-insensitive and broadband absorption are then discussed, including interfacial-polarization regulation, positive/negative temperature coefficient compensation of conductivity, frequency dispersion regulation, macrostructural resonance, and multiscale collaborative design. Second, the effect of oxidation, phase transformation, and decomposition, thereby introducing performance instability beyond idealized material assumptions, on the intrinsic EM responses are discussed. Then, the multi-physics coupling regime (thermal-mechanical-oxygen fields) encountered under near-service conditions is highlighted, where structural integrity degradation and EM attenuation failure become intrinsically intertwined, representing a system-level challenge that cannot be addressed by single-factor optimization. The oxidation-resistant design strategies for integrated load-bearing and wave-absorbing ceramic matrix composites, as well as design methods and recent progress related to high-temperature wave-absorbing coatings, are reviewed. Finally, remaining challenges and future development directions for high-temperature wave-absorbing materials are discussed.
The rapid expansion of EM information technologies has created increasingly crowded EM environments. Uncontrolled EM radiation can interfere with electronic devices, degrade communication quality, and pose potential risks to human health [1], [2], [3]. EM wave-absorbing materials address these problems by converting incident EM energy into other forms of energy rather than reflecting or transmitting it. They are therefore critical for EM compatibility in electronic devices, signal integrity in communication systems, and radar-stealth in aircraft and other platforms [4], [5], [6].
With the continuous expansion of application fields, new requirements have been imposed on wave-absorbing materials, such as lightweight design to reduce fuel consumption, flexibility for wearable applications, structural-functional integration to address load-bearing issues, and higher corrosion resistance for use in extreme environments. Among these, high-temperature wave absorption is particularly urgent for aircraft and propulsion systems, where stealth components must operate under intense aerodynamic heating, oxidation, and mechanical loading [7].
However, high temperature fundamentally changes the design rules of EM absorption. Above the Curie temperature, conventional ferromagnetic-loss mechanisms are strongly suppressed. Consequently, many high-temperature absorbers can be approximated as weakly magnetic, with μr close to unity in the microwave range, forcing high-temperature absorbers to rely mainly on conductivity loss and polarization loss [8], [9], [10]. This loss of magnetic response narrows the design window: the material must retain sufficient dielectric attenuation while avoiding excessive permittivity that causes impedance mismatch. At the same time, the temperature dependence of carrier transport, polarization relaxation, and lattice vibration continuously shift the complex permittivity, making room-temperature design principles insufficient for high-temperature operation.
A second level of complexity arises when thermal exposure triggers irreversible changes in phase composition. Oxidation, crystallization, decomposition, and interphase reactions can consume loss phases, disrupt conductive networks, generate wave-transparent oxides, or create new polarization centers. These processes do not merely perturb EM parameters; they can invalidate the intrinsic dielectric design established before service.
The most severe challenge emerges under near-service conditions. In aircraft or engine-related environments, thermal shock, aerodynamic loading, oxygen ingress, and water-vapor corrosion act simultaneously rather than independently [11], [12], [13], [14]. Their coupling might cause cracking, coating spallation, interfacial oxidation, strength degradation, and EM wave absorbing performance failure. Therefore, high-temperature wave absorbers must be evaluated not only as EM materials but also as structural systems operating under coupled fields.
Despite rapid progress in high-temperature wave-absorbing materials, the field still lacks a unified framework that connects intrinsic EM design with phase stability and service-environment reliability. Existing studies often focus on isolated aspects, such as dielectric-loss enhancement, oxidation resistance, or coating performance, whereas practical deployment requires these issues to be considered as a coupled hierarchy. The purpose of this review is therefore to establish a mechanism-centered framework for understanding high-temperature wave absorption from intrinsic EM regulation to single-factor environmental destabilization and, ultimately, to coupled service-environment failure. Following this logic, this review is organized into three connected levels. Section 2 first clarifies the intrinsic EM challenges at high temperature and summarizes strategies for temperature-insensitive and broadband absorption. Section 3 then examines how single environmental factors, including oxidation and phase transformation, disrupt this intrinsic design. Section 4 finally addresses near-service performance under thermos-mechanical-oxidative coupling, with emphasis on integrated load-bearing and wave-absorbing ceramic matrix composites (ILBWA-CMCs) and high-temperature absorbing coatings. On this basis, remaining challenges and future research directions are discussed.
2. Intrinsic EM Properties Design at High Temperatures
Before environmental degradation and service failure can be addressed, the intrinsic EM design rules at high temperature must first be clarified. Effective absorption requires two conditions to be satisfied simultaneously: incident waves must enter the material through impedance matching, and the transmitted EM energy must then be dissipated by internal loss mechanisms. According to transmission-line theory, the microwave absorption performance of a single-layer absorber backed by a perfect conductor can be described by the normalized input impedance [15], [16], [17], [18]:
where Zin is the normalized input impedance at the material surface, μr and εr are the permeability and permittivity of the material, respectively, f is the frequency of the EM wave, d is the thickness of the material and c is the speed of the light in vacuum. And the reflection loss RL of the material can be obtained by:
These equations are valid under the assumptions of normal incidence, linear response, homogeneous or effectively homogenized EM parameters, uniform thickness, and a perfect electrically conducting backing layer. The smaller the value of RL, the less the EM wave is reflected at the material surface. According to (1), (2), (3), it can be seen that the smaller |Zin-1| becomes and the smaller the value of RL would be.
However, for most ceramic-based high-temperature absorbers, conventional magnetic-loss mechanisms are weakened above the Curie temperature of common magnetic phases [19], [20]. Although some rare-earth-containing systems, Gd-substituted ferrites, or certain coercivity-retained nano-magnets can retain partial magnetic loss up to about 500-600℃, very few magnetic materials can meet the requirements for use under extreme conditions above 1000℃ [21], [22], [23]. Therefore, many systems can be approximated as weakly magnetic in the microwave range, with μr=1-j0 (μr=μ'-jμ″, μ' and μ'' are the real part and imaginary part of complex magnetic permeability and j is the imaginary unit). Under this condition,
This simplified expression shows that, for a weakly magnetic absorber of a given thickness, the normalized input impedance is governed by the temperature and frequency dependent complex permittivity εr. A permittivity close to that of air can reduce the front-surface impedance discontinuity, but effective absorption additionally requires sufficient electrical thickness and dielectric attenuation. Therefore, low permittivity alone does not guarantee strong absorption.
To ensure the EM waves could be sufficiently attenuated after entering the material, the absorber should process strong EM wave attenuation ability. The attenuation constant α can be introduced to quantify internal dissipation, which can be expressed as [24]:
Thus, increasing ε'' enhances dielectric attenuation, whereas excessive increases in ε' and ε'' may shift Zin away from unity and increase surface reflection. High-temperature absorption should therefore be optimized by simultaneously maintaining impedance matching and sufficient attenuation, rather than by maximizing dielectric loss alone.
Compared with room-temperature wave-absorbing materials, the absence of magnetic loss at high temperatures not only increases the difficulty of achieving impedance matching but also weakens the material’s ability to attenuate EM waves. Consequently, high-temperature wave-absorbing materials exhibit narrower absorption bandwidth and insufficient EM wave attenuation capability [25], [26]. Moreover, as the temperature increases, the permittivity of the absorbing material also changes; thus, maintaining good EM wave absorption performance over a wide temperature range remains a major challenge.
2.1. Temperature-Insensitive Absorption
The first intrinsic challenge for high-temperature wave-absorbing materials is temperature drift. Unlike room-temperature absorbers, high-temperature absorbers operate in a regime where permittivity is governed simultaneously by frequency and temperature-dependent factors such as carrier transport, polarization relaxation, and lattice vibration. As the temperature increases, the permittivity of the material undergoes significant drift, which inevitably affects its EM wave absorption performance [27], [28], [29]. The key physics, therefore, revolves around the temperature response of polarization relaxation time (τ) and electrical conductivity (σ), as described by the Debye equation. This section dissects how tailoring these innate relaxation processes can create a stable dielectric platform across a wide temperature range, providing the basis for subsequent structural and environmental design. According to the Debye equation, the permittivity of a material can be expressed as [30]:
Here, ε′ is the real part of the permittivity, ε″ is the imaginary part of the permittivity, ε∞ is the optical-frequency permittivity, εS is the static permittivity, ω is the angular frequency of the EM wave, τ is the polarization relaxation time, and σ is the electrical conductivity of the material. The Debye equation assumes a linear dielectric response with a single relaxation time and noninteracting dipoles. In heterogeneous high-temperature ceramics, the measured permittivity usually contains multiple relaxation processes, Maxwell-Wagner-Sillars interfacial polarization, thermally activated conduction, and defect-related polarization. Therefore, the fitted τ, σ, and relaxation strength should be regarded as effective parameters rather than intrinsic constants.
It can be known from (7), (8) that, as the temperature increases, the intensified thermal motion of microscopic particles shortens the polarization relaxation time τ, while interfacial polarization is significantly enhanced, leading to an increase in the real part of the permittivity ε′ [31], [32], [33]. Meanwhile, the increase in electron migration rate and lattice vibration with rising temperature affects different materials in distinct ways. In metallic materials, as temperature increases, lattice vibrations intensify, causing electrons to experience more scattering during motion, which reduces electron mobility and consequently lowers electrical conductivity. In contrast, in semiconducting SiC and many disordered carbon systems, conductivity may increase with temperature because thermally activated carrier generation or hopping transport can outweigh the reduction in carrier mobility caused by phonon scattering. When both ε′ and ε″ increase simultaneously due to temperature elevation, the input impedance decreases, and more incident EM energy is reflected at the surface. Even if the intrinsic loss is enhanced, the effective absorption performance may still deteriorate significantly. Conversely, when both ε′ and ε″ decrease simultaneously with increasing temperature, although the impedance matching may improve, the reduced EM wave attenuation capability of the material may also lead to a decline in its wave absorption performance. In any case, to keep the EM properties within the desired design window over a wide temperature range, those properties should remain stable with temperature variation, i.e., exhibiting temperature insensitivity.
Wide-temperature-range absorption therefore requires dielectric stability rather than simply stronger dielectric loss. The design target is to suppress large temperature-induced shifts in complex permittivity while preserving enough attenuation to dissipate the waves that enter the material. According to Eq. (8), the dielectric loss of nonmagnetic materials can be categorized into conductivity loss and polarization loss [34]. As temperature increases, when electrical conductivity rises, the conductivity loss also increases. Meanwhile, the interfacial polarization in the material is closely related to ωτ. At a fixed frequency (ω = 2πf), the polarization relaxation time τ gradually decreases with increasing temperature [35]. Calculation shows that ωτ + 1/ωτ first decreases and then increases, reaching its minimum when ωτ=1. When 0 <ωτ <1, the interfacial polarization loss εp″ decreases with increasing temperature, exhibiting a trend opposite to that of conductivity loss. In this case, by tailoring the composition or microstructure of the absorbing material, the proportion of polarization loss can be enhanced to counteract the influence of conductivity loss on the dielectric properties, thereby enabling the material to maintain good EM wave absorption performance over a wide temperature range.
Interfacial polarization occurs at heterointerfaces composed of different materials. Studies have shown that the frequency range of interfacial polarization is related to the dimensions of the heterointerfaces; by constructing nano-heterointerfaces, the response band of interfacial polarization can be shifted to the GHz range [35], [36], [37], [38]. Moreover, by adjusting parameters such as the thickness, contact area, and electrical conductivity of the materials on both sides of the interface, the interfacial polarization loss capability of the absorbing material can be tuned, thereby enabling wide-temperature-range wave absorption performance [38], [39], [40]. Xu et al. synthesized red blood cell-like porous carbon hollow microspheres (RBC-PCHMs) through pyrolysis and etching ( Fig. 1a) [41]. The residual oxygen-containing functional groups and pyrolysis-induced defects in the hollow microspheres acted as polarization centers under an alternating electric field, providing abundant polarization loss capability for the absorbing phase. As the temperature increased, the complementary effect between the rising conductivity loss and the reducing polarization loss allowed the loss phase to maintain relatively stable attenuation capability, exhibiting good wide-temperature-range wave absorption performance from room temperature to 523 K, with an effective absorption bandwidth (EAB, RL ≤ -10dB) consistently exceeding 3 GHz. Li et al. introduced SiCnws into Barium Strontium Aluminosilicate (BSAS) ceramics and prepared SiCnws/BSAS composites by hot-pressing sintering [42]. In the SiCnws/BSAS ceramics, intrinsic defects existed in both SiCnws and BSAS, and the formation of heterojunctions created multiple heterointerfaces. These defects and heterointerfaces acted as polarization centers under an alternating EM field, and the reduced polarization loss imposed a certain restriction and compensation on the increased conductivity loss. The imaginary part of the permittivity increased slowly with temperature, ensuring that no impedance mismatch occurred over the entire testing temperature range. Consequently, the samples exhibited stable wave absorption performance from room temperature to 600℃, with an EAB maintained above 2.1 GHz. Upon further embedding a SiO2 interphase, as shown in Fig. 1b, the dielectric loss capability of the ceramics became dominated by polarization loss and controlled by the interfacial structure [43]. The composites displayed an EAB exceeding 3.0 GHz over the whole temperature range at a thickness below 2.0 mm, ultimately reaching 4.1 GHz at 600℃, covering almost the entire test band. Shi et al. prepared TiN/BN/SiO2 composites by in-situ formation of BN on the TiN surface ( Fig. 1c) [44]. The formation of multiple heterointerfaces effectively enhanced the polarization loss capability, rendering the composites temperature-insensitive in the X-band. The effective absorption bandwidth reached 3.26 GHz over the temperature range of 293~873 K.
As mentioned earlier, the electrical conductivity of some materials exhibits opposite trends with temperature. For example, high-temperature ceramics such as HfB2, ZrB2, TaC, and TiC display metal-like conductivity with a negative temperature coefficient of electrical conductivity [45], [46], [47], whereas materials such as SiC, ZnO, and some carbon fibers have a positive temperature coefficient of electrical conductivity [48], [49], [50]. The electrical resistivity of ZrB2 and SiC fiber as a function of temperature are shown in Fig. 2a [51], [52]. Using these two types of materials with opposite EM characteristics as loss phases, a synergistic compensation mechanism based on positive and negative temperature coefficients is also expected to render the dielectric properties of the absorbing material temperature-insensitive. Huo et al. in-situ synthesized SiC/TiC/SiTiOC hybrid nanofiber mats via electrospinning (as shown in Fig. 2b) [53]. Using SiC/TiC as EM wave loss units, the introduction of high-conductivity TiC optimized the constant dielectric properties and impedance matching of the material, ensuring stable EM attenuation capability at high temperatures. The mats exhibited an effective absorption bandwidth of 3.6 GHz and a minimum reflection loss of -45.55 dB at 873 K. Liu et al. prepared TiB2-Al2O3/MgAl2O4 ceramics by spark plasma sintering (SPS) [54]. Under the compensation effect of the positive and negative temperature coefficients of TiB2 and Al2O3, the electrical conductivity of the ceramic increased slowly with temperature, while dipole polarization loss increased and interfacial polarization loss decreased with rising temperature. The synergy of multiple mechanisms endowed the TiB2-Al2O3/MgAl2O4 ceramics with temperature-insensitive microwave absorption characteristics ( Fig. 2c). In the temperature range of 25℃ to 700℃ at the X-band, the RLmin ranged from -19.4 dB to -14.3 dB, and the absorption bandwidth (RL<-5dB) was from 3.19 GHz to 3.55 GHz. Zhang et al. decorated SiC nanowire surfaces with ZrB2 nanoparticles and then synthesized porous ZrB2@SiCnw aerogels via freeze casting, as shown Fig. 2d, achieving full-band absorption in the X-band from 298 K to 873 K and the RLmin decreased from -22.4 dB to -61.9 dB [55].
2.2. Broadband Absorption
After temperature stability is considered, the next intrinsic requirement is bandwidth: absorbers are expected to maintain strong attenuation over a broad frequency range. However, for a material with a constant permittivity, the wider the target frequency band, the more difficult it is to achieve effective EM wave absorption [56], [57], [58]. Xue et al. investigated the effective absorption bandwidth corresponding to different complex permittivity at 10 GHz for an absorbing material with a thickness of 2.86 mm, as shown in Fig. 3a, the larger the effective absorption bandwidth, the smaller the target range of the permittivity [59]. Duan et al. studied the range of complex permittivity corresponding to different frequencies when an absorbing material with a thickness of 2.86 mm achieves effective absorption in the X-band, as shown in Fig. 3b, and found that the lower the frequency, the higher the required complex permittivity [60]. This is due to the difference in the material’s dissipation capability at different frequency bands. From the above analysis, it is evident that to achieve effective EM wave absorption over a wider frequency band within a limited thickness, the permittivity of the material must vary with frequency, exhibiting a higher permittivity at low frequencies to ensure sufficient dissipation of the EM wave.
Many researchers have pointed out that to achieve effective absorption over a broad frequency band, the permittivity of the absorbing material should decrease as the EM wave frequency increases, a characteristic referred to as the frequency dispersion effect [61], [62]. Ren et al. calculated the target permittivity required for an absorbing material to achieve RL ≤ -50 dB at different thicknesses (as shown in Fig. 3c), and found that at low frequencies, the material’s permittivity needs to exhibit a stronger dispersion effect, i.e., the permittivity must decrease rapidly with increasing frequency [63]. Furthermore, comparing the trends of the real and imaginary parts of the permittivity, the real part needs to show a stronger dispersion effect than the imaginary part. In the GHz frequency range, the frequency dispersion effect of dielectric loss-type absorbing materials mainly originates from the hysteresis of dipole polarization or interfacial polarization with long relaxation time. The stronger the interfacial polarization, the more pronounced the frequency dispersion effect. Therefore, the degree of dispersion of the absorbing material can be tuned by controlling the polarization relaxation time [63].
To achieve a strong frequency dispersion effect, many researchers have adopted two strategies to enhance interfacial polarization capability: increasing the interfacial contact area and strengthening the polarization intensity at nano-heterogeneous interfaces. Ding et al. sulfurized a ZnO coating on a carbon cloth surface to form a ZnS layer, thereby fabricating CC@ZnO/ZnS composite with multi-layered heterointerfaces on the fiber surfaces, as shown in Fig. 4a [64]. The composite exhibited a frequency dispersion characteristic, achieving an effective absorption bandwidth of 7.02 GHz. Si et al. noted that the introduction of magnetic loss can relax the strict requirement for the degree of dielectric dispersion in materials [65]. They introduced carbonyl iron powder as the magnetic loss phase and carbon nanotubes as the dielectric loss phase into an epoxy matrix, and used a feedforward neural network model to predict the optimal dispersion coefficient of the material at different frequencies and thicknesses. By precisely tuning the EM parameters, they improved the absorption efficiency, ultimately achieving an effective absorption bandwidth of 7.04 GHz at a thickness of 1 mm ( Fig. 4b). Inspired by the concept of the finite element method, Ren et al. used multiple ultra-high temperature boride ceramics as loss phases [63]. By adjusting the thickness of the surface oxide layer and the boride content, they tuned the polarization relaxation time and polarization intensity in the material, achieving precise design of the permittivity and obtaining an absorbing material with high dispersion characteristics ( Fig. 4c). The material exhibited an effective absorption bandwidth of 26.98 GHz at a thickness of only 2.8 mm. Luo et al., using the transmission matrix method, established a quantitative relationship between the equivalent impedance of a densely stacked resistive frequency selective surface (RFSS) and the effective permittivity of the medium [66]. By altering the pattern and sheet resistance of the RFSS, they tuned the dispersion characteristics of the permittivity, resulting in an effective absorption in the frequency range of 1.64-18 GHz ( Fig. 4d).
Broadband absorption can be achieved through two different but complementary routes. The first route is material dispersion-driven absorption, where the frequency-dependent complex permittivity is regulated by interfacial polarization, dipole relaxation, conductive networks, and multirelaxation processes [67], [68], [69], [70]. In this case, the absorber relies primarily on the intrinsic frequency dispersion of εr to satisfy impedance matching and attenuation over a broad frequency range. The second route is macrostructure-resonance-driven absorption, where wavelength-comparable structures, such as honeycombs, lattices, metasurfaces, or frequency-selective surfaces, introduce scattering, multiple reflection, destructive interference, and equivalent impedance gradients [71], [72], [73]. The former emphasizes microscopic dielectric regulation, whereas the latter emphasizes structural resonance and wave-path engineering. The introduction of RFSS has also demonstrated that utilizing the resonant response of the material to EM waves enables the equivalent dielectric constant to exhibit high frequency dispersion characteristics. Therefore, macrostructural design of the material becomes a natural and necessary approach.
2.3. Macrostructural Design
Macrostructural design addresses a different level of the same intrinsic problem. Instead of relying only on temperature-sensitive microscopic loss mechanisms, periodic structures regulate the propagation path, scattering, reflection, diffraction, and interference of EM waves at the wavelength-comparable scale [74], [75], [76], [77]. Both energy loss and resonant absorption mechanisms for EM wave attenuation exist in macrostructure wave-absorbing materials. Energy loss depends on the material’s intrinsic EM properties, whereas resonant absorption relies on the design of the material's shape and structure [7].
The resonant absorption mechanism is primarily realized through destructive interference of EM waves; although its performance still depends on the dielectric properties and structural integrity of the constituent materials, the introduction of macrostructures greatly mitigates the influence of temperature-induced variations in dielectric properties on the EM wave absorption performance. Therefore, increasing the proportion of resonant absorption can mitigate the influence of temperature variations on the material’s wave absorption performance, freeing the material from dependence on microscopic loss mechanisms and enabling the composite to maintain good EM wave absorption even over a wide range of temperature changes.
Periodic macrostructural design also holds promise for freeing broadband wave absorption performance from dependence on the dispersion characteristics of the wave-absorbing material’s intrinsic EM parameters, thereby overcoming the limitations of target permittivity and making broadband absorption more achievable. Unlike high-temperature absorbing materials, variations in EM wave frequency also affect the wave absorption performance of the macrostructure. However, in the frequency range of 2-18 GHz, the wavelength of EM waves is approximately 15-150 mm, which is precisely close to the scale of macrostructural design. In this case, EM waves can more readily interact with the material’s macrostructure, and the resonance effect between the waves and the structure can effectively dissipate the EM energy. Furthermore, in macrostructural design, structures with multiple characteristic length scales can be introduced into the material through pattern design of the periodic surface structures or shape design of three-dimensional structures, thereby creating multiple resonance structures and effectively broadening the material’s EM wave absorption bandwidth.
Unlike many conventional metamaterial perfect absorbers developed primarily under room-temperature or idealized conditions, high-temperature metastructures must simultaneously retain resonant geometry, dielectric stability, oxidation resistance, and structural integrity during thermal exposure. Cao et al. incorporated discontinuous periodic structures into SiCf/Si3N4 composites ( Fig. 5a) [78]. Owing to the unique scattering and interference cancellation effects of the meta-structures, the composites exhibited temperature-insensitive EM properties at elevated temperatures. Even when the temperature increased to 600℃, the EAB and average reflection loss of the composites remained essentially unchanged. Wang et al. fabricated periodic honeycomb structures based on SiCf/Si3N4 composites [79]. The presence of honeycomb walls enhanced the dissipation of EM waves through increased scattering and resonance effects, while the numerous pores within the honeycomb improved impedance matching. As shown in Fig. 5b, even though the imaginary part of the permittivity of the SiCf/Si3N4 composite nearly doubled from room temperature to 500℃, the honeycomb structure still achieved an EAB of 10.5 GHz over the temperature range from room temperature to 1000℃. Xu et al. constructed a square lattice sandwich structure using interlocking technology [80]. By designing conductive patterns on the sidewalls, optimizing pattern dimensions, and improving impedance matching, as shown in Fig. 5c, the composite maintained an EAB of 10.3 GHz at 800℃. Wang et al. employed 3D printing to fabricate a SiC honeycomb structure ( Fig. 5d), which exhibited excellent oxidation resistance and high-temperature EM wave absorption [81]. After exposure to 1000 ℃or oxidation at 1600℃, the structure achieved an EAB of 37.55 GHz at an incidence angle of 60°.
2.4. Multiscale Collaborative Design
The preceding sections show that neither microscopic dielectric regulation nor macroscopic resonance alone can fully resolve high-temperature absorption. As a result, a more robust strategy for high-temperature EM wave absorber is multiscale design: microscopic heterointerfaces and composition regulation to stabilize EM properties and tune dielectric loss, whereas macroscopic architectures reduce the sensitivity of absorption performance to dielectric drift and broaden the operating bandwidth. Xu et al. fabricated CNTs/CNF foam via an ice-templating method and subsequently deposited a Si3N4 layer on the foam surface using chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) to prepare CNTs/CNF/Si3N4 composites ( Fig. 6a) [82]. The composites exhibited excellent wave absorption performance over the temperature range from room temperature to 873 K, with the effective absorption bandwidth covering the entire X-band throughout the testing temperature range. Liang et al. assembled Si-C-N nanofiber membranes obtained through electrospinning process into periodic arrays and incorporated them into ceramic foams [83]. Through multiscale synergistic effects, the material achieved good EM wave absorption capability, with an effective absorption bandwidth of 36 GHz at 1200℃. It also exhibited a compressive strength of 6.65 MPa and high temperature resistance, surviving a 35 min oxyhydrogen flame test at 1585℃ and a 20 s oxyacetylene flame test at 2300℃ ( Fig. 6b). Ren et al. coated carbon nanotubes with a BN layer, dispersed them in a polycarbosilane precursor, and molded the mixture in a specific dimension mold to fabricate a SiC-BN@CNT periodic raised structure, which achieved an effective absorption bandwidth of 15.52 GHz at 1273 K [84].
3. Single-Factor Environmental Destabilization of EM Performance
Having laid the theoretical and material foundations for stable high-temperature absorption, a critical vulnerability must then be addressed: the meticulously tuned dielectric properties discussed above are susceptible to complete unraveling by isolated chemical and thermal processes. In a non-ideal environment, the wave-absorbing phases themselves can become thermodynamically unstable, which might alter phase composition, conductive pathways, polarization centers, and impedance matching, thereby disrupting the EM design optimized at the intrinsic-material level. This section focuses on how singular environmental factors (primarily oxidation and field-driven crystallization) disrupt the intrinsic material design outlined in Section 2.
Environmental destabilization affects EM absorption by changing both impedance matching and attenuation capability. Oxidation, crystallization, decomposition, and interphase reactions may decrease ε″ by consuming conductive or lossy phases, such as carbon, SiC, Ti3SiC2, or borides, thereby reducing dielectric attenuation. They may also change ε′ by generating low-permittivity oxides, such as SiO2, Al2O3, or borosilicate glass, which may improve impedance matching in some cases but reduce energy dissipation. Conversely, crystallization of amorphous precursor derived ceramics (PDC) may generate SiC nanocrystals or carbon-rich domains, increasing ε′ and ε″, which may enhance attenuation but also cause impedance mismatch. Therefore, the key issue is not whether environmental reactions increase or decrease permittivity, but whether the trajectory of εr remains within the effective absorption window defined by Zin and α.
3.1. Oxidation Effects
Oxidation is the most pervasive and immediate threat. It attacks the core dielectric strategy by chemically consuming the lossy phases. Oxygen can diffuse through cracks, pores, or connected defects and react with carbon, SiC, MAX phases, borides, and other absorptive components. The result is often a simultaneous decrease in dielectric loss, disruption of conductive networks, and deterioration of impedance matching, shifting the dielectric properties away from the optimal window. For example, oxidation of free carbon or conductive networks usually decreases ε″, weakens conductive loss, and lowers α. Oxidation of SiC or MAX phases can generate SiO2, TiO2, or other oxides, which often reduces dielectric loss and shifts the impedance state toward a wave-transparent regime. In contrast, partial oxidation or interfacial reaction may sometimes introduce new heterogeneous interfaces and polarization centers, leading to a temporary increase in polarization loss. These competing effects explain why oxidation-induced EM evolution should be evaluated through both ε′ and ε″, instead of being described simply as performance degradation. The following analysis dissects this process, its impact on EM response, and the strategies to create oxidation-resistant functionalities.
The impact of oxidation on high-temperature wave-absorbing materials primarily lies in the reaction between the loss phase and oxygen during the oxidation process, which reduces the material’s ability to attenuate EM waves. This is mainly manifested in two aspects: first, the change in the permittivity of the loss phase after oxidation affects the overall dielectric properties of the composite, impairing impedance matching; second, absorbing agents represented by carbon and SiC either generate gases and escape or transform into wave-transparent phases after oxidation, thereby losing their EM wave attenuation capability. For example, carbon-based absorbers such as carbon nanowires, carbon nanotubes, and graphene exhibit excellent EM loss capability but poor high-temperature oxidation resistance. When the oxidation temperature exceeds 300℃, reduced graphene oxide begins to decompose, and it is completely oxidized when the temperature reaches 600℃~700℃ [85]. In wave-absorbing ceramics, as the degree of oxidation increases, the loss phase within the material is consumed, resulting in a gradual decline in the EM wave absorption capability of the composite. Wang et al. investigated the effect of oxidation on the wave absorption performance of Si3N4-SiCN ceramics [86]. As can be seen from Fig. 7a, as the oxidation temperature and time increased, the dielectric properties and EM wave absorption performance of the ceramic decreased. When the oxidation temperature exceeded 800℃, the dominant factor affecting the material’s EM properties gradually shifted from carbon phase oxidation to SiC oxidation. Ultimately, after oxidation at 1000℃ for 5 h, the material exhibited wave-transparent characteristics. The loss phase represented by SiC has a higher oxidation temperature, and the SiO2 formed upon passive oxidation can protect the internal absorber, endowing the material with greater oxidation resistance. Liu et al. introduced Ti3SiC2 into cordierite to prepare a composite and studied its EM properties after oxidation at 800-1000℃ [87]. As the oxidation degree increased, Ti3SiC2 transformed into TiO2 and amorphous SiO2, leading to a decrease in permittivity and attenuation capability. Ye et al. investigated the effect of oxidation on the EM properties of SiC fibers [88]. The results showed that the electrical properties of SiC fibers are mainly influenced by the free carbon content. When the free carbon and SiC nanocrystal content exceeded the percolation threshold, the logarithm of the fiber’s electrical conductivity was linearly and positively correlated with the free carbon volume fraction. As the degree of oxidation increased, the oxidation of free carbon in the fibers disrupted the conductive network. The high-resistance SiO2 phase generated after oxidation of SiC nanocrystals hindered charge migration within the fibers, causing both the electrical conductivity and permittivity of the oxidized fibers to decrease, and consequently, the EM wave attenuation capability also declined. As shown in Fig. 7b, after oxidation at 1100℃ for 10 h, the permittivity of the SiC fibers decreased from 7.51-j5.52 to 5.96-j3.90, and the electrical conductivity of the fibers decreased from 7.8 S/m to 3.2 S/m.
Because oxidation primarily attacks the loss phase, oxidation-resistant design must either block oxygen transport to the absorber or make the absorber itself thermodynamically and kinetically less susceptible to oxidation.
Introducing an antioxidant layer on the outside of the absorber can establish an oxygen barrier around the loss phase, reducing the oxidation probability of the loss phase and thus enhancing the oxidation resistance of the wave-absorbing material. Zhao et al. successfully synthesized submicron ZrC-SiC-C microspheres via a carbothermal reduction reaction combined with a template method ( Fig. 8a) [89]. The unique structure and composition increased the oxygen diffusion path and improved the oxidation resistance of ZrC, raising the initial oxidation temperature of the loss phase from 320℃ to 411℃. Jian et al. introduced a SiC protective layer on the surface of ZrB2 particles via catalytic chemical vapor deposition (CCVD) and CVI to prepare ZrN0.4B0.6/SiC nanohybrids, thereby enhancing the oxidation resistance of the loss phase. Luo et al. coated a SiBCN matrix on the outside of graphene@Fe3O4 as an antioxidant barrier, effectively preventing the oxidation of the absorbing phase ( Fig. 8b) [90]. Even after oxidation at 600℃, the material still exhibited very good EM wave absorption performance, with a RLmin of -66.21 dB and an EAB of 3.69 GHz.
The development of novel antioxidant absorbers can reduce the influence of oxidation on the permittivity of the absorber and improve the oxidation resistance of high-temperature wave-absorbing materials. The Al3BC3 absorber developed by Lv et al. exhibited an oxidation activation energy of 213.04 kJ/mol, and its minimum reflection loss at 973 K still reached -45.86 dB [91]. The Cr2AlB2 absorber prepared by Zhang et al. maintained effective absorption from the C band to the Ku band even after oxidation at 1000℃ ( Fig. 8c) [92]. High-entropy ceramics have exhibited a series of outstanding characteristics and have become a research hotspot in recent years. Among these, the high-entropy effect can stabilize phases and endow the material with good oxidation resistance. Some researchers have exploited this feature to develop high-entropy ceramics as loss phases to enhance the high-temperature oxidation resistance of wave-absorbing materials. Ma et al. prepared a high-entropy oxide absorber (MgCoNiCuZn)O, which achieved a minimum reflection loss of -41.35 dB in the X-band [93]. Zhang et al. successfully synthesized HE REB6/HE REB4 via a B4C reduction method, as shown in Fig. 8d, achieving an effective absorption bandwidth of 4.2 GHz while maintaining good oxidation resistance [94].
3.2. Crystallization, Decomposition, and Reaction
High temperature can also destabilize the EM absorption of a material by changing the crystallization state or chemical stability of constituent phases. Amorphous phases are often introduced as low-permittivity components to tune impedance matching, but high-temperature crystallization may generate SiC, carbon-rich domains, or other high-loss phases that shift the permittivity away from the designed window. Ceramics such as PDC-SiOC and PDC-SiBCN with low free carbon content are typical amorphous phases, both possessing low permittivity and low dielectric loss capability, and are often used as impedance matching phases in high-temperature absorbing materials. Nevertheless, with increasing service temperature, these ceramics gradually crystallize to form SiC and carbon phases with high dielectric loss, causing their permittivity to rise and thereby affecting the EM wave absorption capability. Subjecting the material to pre-heat treatment to promote crystallization and then utilizing the phase transformation to regulate the EM properties can mitigate the influence of high-temperature crystallization on the EM performance. Ye et al. studied the effect of heat treatment on the EM properties of PDC-SiOC ceramics [95]. The results showed that after heat treatment at 1400℃, the permittivity of PDC-SiOC ceramics increased from 3.42-j0.13 to 4.05-j0.14. Introducing carbon nanotubes into the precursor would promote the crystallization of the SiOC matrix; after adding 2 wt.% carbon nanotubes, the permittivity of the absorbing material after heat treatment at 1400℃ increased from 5.32-j1.17 to 8.17-j2.91. For PDC-SiBCN ceramics, the formation of SiC during heat treatment also increases the permittivity. As the heat treatment temperature rises, the SiC content and the degree of crystallization gradually increase. Owing to the formation of a conductive network of SiC grains and the increase in nanocrystalline boundaries, the permittivity, dielectric loss, and electrical conductivity of PDC-SiBCN gradually increase with temperature; after heat treatment at 1800℃, the permittivity increases from 2.72-j0.03 to 10.39-j5.57 [96]. In comparison, the BN nanocrystals in PDC-SiBCN ceramics can hinder atomic diffusion in the amorphous phase and retard the crystallization of the ceramic, thereby improving the stability of the high-temperature EM properties to a certain extent [97], [98].
The decomposition of phases or reactions between phases at high temperatures can also affect the material’s wave-absorbing performance. For example, the decomposition temperature of Si3N4 is approximately 1800℃, which limits its application at even higher temperatures. Zou et al. studied the high-temperature ablation behavior of Si3N4f/BN composites and found that the decomposition of Si3N4 during ablation resulted in a rough ablated surface, which is detrimental to signal transmission of the material [99], the change of the surface roughness degree would also affect the EM wave reflection on the surface of the material and deteriorate the EM wave-absorption performance. When the service temperature exceeds 900℃, B2O3 may volatilize [100]; this low volatilization temperature also restricts the application of borosilicate glass in the field of high-temperature wave absorption. Therefore, at the initial stage of material design, it is necessary to reasonably select material components according to the intended service temperature. Below its decomposition temperature, Si3N4 is still widely used in the fields of wave absorption and wave transparency due to its outstanding wave-transparent and mechanical properties [1]. Furthermore, reactions between different phases within the material may also affect the EM performance of wave-absorbing materials. Some metal oxides (e.g., ZnO, In2O3, SnO2, etc.) contain high concentrations of charge carriers, exhibit excellent EM loss capability, and do not react further with oxygen [101], [102], [103]. They possess high oxidation resistance and are ideal oxidation-resistant absorbing phases. However, they may still react with the oxidation products of the matrix, thereby affecting the EM performance. In such cases, it is necessary to consider adding a protective layer on the outer surface of the material to avoid possible chemical reactions [104], [105], [106].
In general, the influence of crystallization, decomposition, and reactions that induced by thermal active effect on the intrinsic permittivity of the material are not fixed; the specific changes must be analyzed on a case-by-case basis according to the phase transformations occurring before and after high-temperature exposure. Nevertheless, to ensure that the material remains within the optimal absorption window despite significant temperature fluctuations, preserving phase stability to reduce permittivity drift is still essential.
4. Multi-Factor Coupled Degradation under Near-Service Conditions
The preceding sections have dealt with challenges in isolation: first, the intrinsic physics of absorber, and then, the effects of single environmental drivers like oxidation. The transition to a practical application, however, precipitates a conflict of a higher order. In an aircraft 's exhaust nozzle or a turbine engine, these factors never act alone. Their coupling converts material-level EM degradation into system-level failure, including cracking, interfacial oxidation, coating spallation, strength loss, and absorption deterioration. Therefore, to promote the practical application of these materials, targeted designs that take into account their high-temperature service environments are necessary to enhance their application performance.
4.1. Integrated Load-Bearing and Wave-Absorbing (ILBWA) CMCs
Aircraft engine nozzles represent a typical case in which EM absorption and structural integrity must be achieved in the same component. These parts are exposed to high-speed gas flow, thermal gradients, and oxidizing atmospheres; thus, the stealth materials need to possess sufficient load-bearing capacity. Therefore, the development of high-temperature ceramic matrix composites integrating load-bearing and wave absorption capabilities is particularly important.
4.1.1. Current Development
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are typically composed of fibers, interphase, and matrix. Among these, fibers play a decisive role in determining the mechanical properties as the core component of CMCs. In the design of wave absorption performance of ILBWA-CMCs, the EM properties of the fibers serve as the basis, establishing the fiber preform content and weaving pattern, followed by tailored matching design of the interlayer and matrix. According to their EM characteristics, fibers can be classified as wave-transparent fibers, wave-absorbing fibers, and reflective fibers. The response characteristics of composites to EM waves differ significantly among these fiber systems.
Reflective fibers, represented by carbon fibers and low-oxygen high-carbon SiC fibers, contain substantial free carbon, which increases the fiber conductivity and endows them with high-permittivity and high-loss EM characteristics. When reflective fibers are used as the reinforcement phase, a wave-transparent phase with low permittivity and low loss must be employed as the matrix to satisfy the impedance matching condition ( Fig. 9a) [107]. Wave-transparent fibers, such as Al2O3 fibers, Si3N4 fibers, and SiO2 fibers, exhibit low-permittivity and low-loss EM characteristics ( Fig. 9b) [108]. In composites, wave-transparent fibers primarily serve a load-bearing role; therefore, a loss phase needs to be introduced into the interphase or the matrix to achieve EM wave attenuation. For ILBWA-CMCs fabricated with wave-transparent fibers, various types of loss phases can be introduced into the matrix, and their distribution and content can be designed to create multiple loss mechanisms, greatly enhancing the tunability of the dielectric properties and theoretically leading to superior wave absorption performance. Near-stoichiometric SiC fibers are mainly composed of SiC nanocrystals, amorphous SiOCx, and a small amount of free carbon, with an electrical conductivity on the order of 10-3 S/m, exhibiting semiconducting behavior and medium permittivity and medium loss electromagnetic characteristics. The multiple heterointerfaces formed by free carbon, SiC nanocrystals, and amorphous SiOCx in SiC fibers provide abundant polarization loss capability, while the migration of free electrons in SiC nanocrystals and free carbon gives rise to conductivity loss [109]. The synergistic effect of multiple loss mechanisms endows SiC fibers with high EM wave absorption capability. When absorbing fibers are used as the reinforcement phase, the fibers serve as both the primary load-bearing units and the primary EM loss phase in the composite. In this case, the EM wave absorption performance of the composite is mainly determined by the EM properties, volume fraction, and weaving pattern of the fibers. However, the intrinsic dielectric properties of the fibers and the constraints of the preform weaving pattern also result in relatively limited tunability of the composite’s permittivity, restricting the design flexibility of the EM properties. To achieve satisfactory impedance matching, a BN interphase with low permittivity and oxidation resistance (compared with PyC interpahse) is generally deposited on the surface of SiC fibers as an impedance matching phase ( Figs.9c and 9d) [110], [111].
4.1.2. Oxidation-Induced Mechanical Degradation
In ILBWA-CMCs, oxidation threatens structural reliability even more directly than EM attenuation. Once oxygen reaches the fiber/interphase region, it can degrade fiber strength, change interfacial bonding, suppress fiber pull-out, and convert pseudo-ductile fracture into brittle failure. Taking SiC fiber reinforced composites as an example, the effects of oxidation are mainly manifested in two aspects: degradation of fiber intrinsic strength and interfacial failure. First, the reduction in the effective load-bearing volume of the fibers after oxidation and the residual thermal stress generated after the formation of the oxide layer decrease the tensile strength of the fibers. Liu et al. studied the effect of oxidation temperature on Zelramic300 SiC fibers (Hunan Zerafber New Materials Co., Ltd.). The results showed that when the oxidation temperature exceeded 1000℃, the SiC fibers began to oxidize [112]. When the oxidation temperature increased to 1300℃, the tensile strength of the fibers decreased from 3.0 GPa to 1.2 GPa. The thermal stress generated during the transformation of SiC to SiO2 and the thermal mismatch stress between SiC and SiO2 induced cracks to initiate from the oxidized region of the fibers and led to fiber fracture [113]. Second, after the BN interphase oxidizes to form B2O3, it transforms into a brittle phase, bonding the fiber and matrix together to form a strong interface. During subsequent load-bearing process, cracks propagate directly through the interfacial region, causing the SiC fibers to fracture under shear stress and lose their load-bearing capacity; the composite then exhibits brittle fracture. Yang et al. studied the effect of oxidation on the mechanical properties of SiCf/Si3N4-SiOC-Si3N4 composites. The results showed that when the oxidation temperature exceeded 1000℃, oxidation of the BN interphase made fiber pull-out and stress transfer at the interface more difficult ( Fig. 10). After oxidation at 1200℃, the residual flexural strength of the composite decreased from 308 MPa to 246 MPa [114]. Ye et al. prepared SiCf/SiCN composites by the precursor impregnation and pyrolysis (PIP) process and studied the effect of oxidation on the material properties. The results showed that after oxidation at 1200℃, the residual flexural strength of the composite decreased from 522 MPa to 375 MPa [115].
4.1.3. Oxidation Resistance Design of ILBWA-CMCs
Oxidation-resistant design of ILBWA-CMCs must satisfy a dual constraint that is absent in conventional structural CMCs: maintain load-bearing capacity while preserving impedance matching and dielectric attenuation. Thus, oxidation resistance cannot be optimized independently of EM design. In addition to the degradation of EM properties after oxidation, oxidation of the fibers and interphase may lead to a reduction in fiber load-bearing capacity or affect internal load transfer. Consequently, the core of oxidation resistance design for ILBWA-CMCs lies in ensuring that the permittivity does not change significantly before and after oxidation while simultaneously avoiding oxidation of the fibers and interphase. The oxidation resistance design can be approached by adding constraints on EM properties to the conventional oxidation resistance design of structural load-bearing ceramic matrix composites, thereby achieving effective synergy among wave absorption, load-bearing, and oxidation resistance. The key to oxidation resistance design for traditional structural load-bearing CMCs is to prevent oxygen from attacking the fibers and interphase. The fundamental principle involves constructing oxidation-resistant barriers either inside or on the surface of the material to hinder the diffusion of oxygen into the material interior. Currently, two main approaches exist: oxidation-resistant coatings and self-healing matrix modification. The oxidation resistance design of ILBWA-CMCs can also proceed along these two directions.
4.1.3.1. Oxidation-resistant coatings of ILBWA-CMCs
Oxidation-resistant coating modification involves applying a modified coating that can block oxygen onto the surface of the CMCs after the matrix has been densified. During oxidation, the modified coating forms an oxide layer on the surface of the composite, acting as a protective barrier to prevent oxygen from penetrating into the material interior. An oxidation-resistant coating generally needs to possess low oxygen permeability to avoid inward oxygen attack, as well as high physical or chemical compatibility with the substrate, together with matched thermal expansion coefficient and adequate adhesion to prevent detachment.
For the oxidation-resistant coating of ILBWA-CMCs, to maximize the dissipation of EM, the reflection of EM waves at the coating surface should be minimized, allowing them to penetrate the coating and enter the material interior. In this case, the self-healing coating only plays a role of oxidation barrier, and thus, the coating should possess low permittivity and low loss characteristics. Table 1 presents the dielectric properties of some wave-transparent ceramics, among which SiO2, mullite, and borosilicate glass exhibit relatively low permittivity and EM loss, and are also commonly used as oxidation-resistant coatings for CMCs. Wan et al. prepared SiCf/AlPO4 wave-absorbing composites and applied a borosilicate glass coating as a protective layer [116]. After oxidation at 1000℃ for 50 h, the dielectric properties showed no significant change, and the residual flexural strength remained at 210 MPa. In addition to traditional oxidation-resistant coatings, BSAS and some rare-earth silicate water-vapor corrosion-resistant coatings also exhibit low permittivity, and are expected to serve as environmental thermal barrier coatings for wave-absorbing composites, enhancing their resistance to water-vapor corrosion while minimizing the impact of coating introduction on the material's EM properties. Li et al. incorporated SiC nanowires into a BSAS matrix to fabricate SiCnws/BSAS composites [42]. The minimum absorption peak at 600℃ reached -63.6 dB, and the material exhibited stable EM wave attenuation capability even in a high-temperature water-vapor corrosion environment. Furthermore, some studies have shown that lanthanide rare-earth silicates such as RE2SiO5 and RE2Si2O7 also possess relatively low permittivity and low EM loss, along with excellent oxidation resistance, corrosion resistance, and high melting points, making them excellent high-temperature wave-transparent media [117], [118].
4.1.3.2. Self-healing matrix modification of ILBWA-CMCs
Self-healing matrix modification is realized through introducing a self-healing phase into the matrix during the preparation of CMCs. The glassy phase formed by matrix oxidation fills internal cracks, thereby preventing oxygen from diffusing into the material interior. Based on the distribution form of the self-healing phase in the matrix, matrix self-healing modification can be classified into multi-layer self-healing matrix modification and multi-component dispersed self-healing matrix modification. For the selection of the self-healing phase, its modulus and expansion characteristics must be sufficiently matched with those of the matrix to avoid introducing excessive matrix damage. Furthermore, the oxidation reaction of the self-healing phase should occur within an appropriate temperature range, requiring that its oxidation onset temperature be lower than the oxidation temperature range of the composite while being close to that range.
During oxidation, the self-healing phase in the matrix reacts preferentially with oxygen, thereby protecting other phases. To maintain the stability of the EM properties of the composite, the permittivity variation of self-healing phase before and after oxidation should be as small as possible. In general, the oxidation products of self-healing phases, such as SiO2, B2O3, and xB2O3·ySiO2, all exhibit low permittivity; therefore, the self-healing phase before oxidation should also possess wave-transparent characteristics. It makes self-healing phase such as B4C, which is commonly used in traditional structural CMCs, no longer viable as candidate options for ILBWA-CMCs. SiBCN prepared by the precursor pyrolysis method has low permittivity, and its oxidation product is borosilicate glass, which exhibits high permittivity stability from room temperature to 1100℃ and good self-healing properties, making it an excellent self-healing wave-transparent matrix [123]. Studies have shown that after introducing absorbing agents such as Fe, graphene, or SiC nanowires into the SiBCN matrix, the SiBCN matrix can protect the internal absorbing agents at high temperatures, effectively preventing oxidation of the absorbers and significantly improving the stability of the EM properties of the wave-absorbing composite after oxidation [90]. Zhang et al. introduced a SiBCN/SiC dual-phase matrix into a SiC fiber preform [124]. As can be found from Fig. 11a, the SiBCN matrix oxidized to form a multiscale layered SiBCN/SiO2/h-BN structure, which served as a protective barrier against internal oxygen attack. The strength retention rate after oxidation at 1000℃ for 200 h still reached 86.1%. By further introducing a self-healing phase with a higher volume expansion coefficient into the SiBCN matrix, the crack-healing capability of the matrix can be further enhanced. Hao et al. introduced SiB6 powder into a SiCf/Si3N4 preform and introduced a SiBCN matrix via the PIP process to achieve densification, preparing SiCf/Si3N4-SiBCN-SiB6 composites ( Fig. 11b) [125]. The introduction of SiB6 particles further enhanced the self-healing capability of the composite at high temperatures. The glassy phase formed during oxidation sealed the cracks in the matrix, preventing the oxidation of the fibers and interlayer. After oxidation at 1200℃, while the EM properties of the composite remained substantially stable, the residual flexural strength after oxidation reached 227 MPa.
4.2. High-Temperature Wave-Absorbing Coating
Applying wave-absorbing coatings on the surface of superalloys is another highly promising approach to solving the stealth problem of aircrafts [126], [127], [128]. However, high-temperature stealth coatings also face many challenges during application. Among them, coating spallation is the most critical issue. Typically, to achieve good EM wave absorption, the thickness of an absorbing material often needs to reach 1 mm or more [129], [130], [131], which inevitably increases the thermal mismatch between the coating and the substrate and leads to coating detachment. Although research on environmental thermal barrier coatings for metallic components has achieved substantial results, studies on the adhesion of high-temperature wave-absorbing coatings are still relatively limited. In particular, constraints on the EM functionality of the loss phase and the binder greatly restrict the selection of materials, undoubtedly increasing the difficulty of material design. Under service conditions, wave-absorbing coatings must also contend with coating spallation caused by thermal shock damage and high-speed airflow erosion. Therefore, in addition to EM performance design, the thermal expansion coefficient and adhesion of the coating need to be optimized [132], [133], [134]. Furthermore, the coating must face environmental erosion issues such as oxidation and water-vapor-assisted oxidation. In service, wave-absorbing coatings are often exposed on the surface of metal structures, making them more vulnerable to aggressive environments. This can lead to oxidation of the loss phase or damage to coating flatness under environmental attack, thereby impairing EM wave absorption performance. In recent years, researchers have carried out extensive work on high-temperature wave-absorbing coatings, and many problems associated with high-temperature coating applications have been resolved. Coating adhesion strength has been improved by optimizing spraying processes, coating formulations, and interface treatments. Coating spallation caused by thermal mismatch has been addressed through the design of gradient transition layers, adjustment of coating expansion coefficients, and self-repair functionalities. For example, Li et al. prepared a thermal barrier coating with radar absorption (TB-RA coating) functionality [135]. The adhesion of the coating was enhanced by sandblasting the metal substrate. Then, NiCrAlY and yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) were sequentially deposited on the metal substrate by atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) to form a gradient transition layer, then microstructure of the coating can be found from Fig. 12a. Finally, a high-temperature indium tin oxide (ITO) paste was screen-printed onto the coating surface to create a periodic wave-absorbing structure. Topology optimization of the surface pattern was performed to regulate the wave absorption performance, ultimately achieving an absorption bandwidth of 17.7 GHz (RL ≤ -5 dB) at 1000℃ with a coating thickness of 1.5 mm.
Furthermore, current high-temperature wave-absorbing coatings are mainly applied on the surfaces of superalloys. Constrained by the service temperature limits of metals, the primary operating temperature range of existing high-temperature wave-absorbing coatings is below 800℃. When the service temperature rises above 1000℃, CMCs become the focus of research for high-temperature structural applications. Fabricating wave-absorbing coatings on the surface of CMCs offers a feasible approach to addressing the high-temperature wave absorption problem. Dong et al. deposited a SiC matrix on the surface of SiC/SiC composites and then prepared a borosilicate coating by a thermal nitrogen-oxygen process ( Fig.12b) [136]. The mechanical and dielectric properties of the composites after oxidation at different temperatures were investigated. The introduction of the coating endowed the composites with EM wave absorption capability while serving as an oxidation barrier, thereby increasing the residual strength of the material after oxidation. Feng et al. fabricated Mullite/SiB6 wave-absorbing coatings by atmospheric plasma spraying and studied the effect of high-temperature oxidation environments on the EM properties of the coatings ( Fig.12c) [137]. The results showed that after oxidation at 1100℃ for 5 h, the permittivity of the coating still reached 12.20-j2.12. Wave-absorbing coatings on CMCs face the same issues as those on metallic substrates. As the service temperature further increases, problems such as spallation due to thermal shock, cracking caused by thermal mismatch, and oxidation-induced failure become more severe. Fortunately, the designability of composites offers the possibility to solve these issues. By designing the interlayer or matrix of the composite, the thermal expansion coefficient of the composite can be adjusted to alleviate thermal mismatch, and the bonding strength between the coating and the substrate can be enhanced through matrix composition design. Currently, research on wave-absorbing coatings for ceramic matrix composites is still limited, and further exploration is needed in this area.
5. Challenges and Future Directions
Despite the substantial progress achieved in the field of high-temperature wave-absorbing materials, substantial gaps persist between laboratory research and engineering deployment. To provide a clearer comparison of recently representative high-temperature absorbers, Table 2 summarizes their frequency band, test temperature, microwave absorption performance, retained electromagnetic absorption (EMA) performance and mechanical reliability, which demonstrates that many reported absorbers exhibit promising high-temperature EM attenuation, whereas oxidation resistance, mechanical reliability and EM properties stability still need to be improved or evaluated in many studies. Drawing upon the comprehensive analysis presented in the preceding sections, this section systematically delineates the critical challenges that continue to impede the advancement of high-temperature wave-absorbing materials, examines the underlying scientific and technological bottlenecks, and outlines prospective research directions that may guide future efforts in this domain.
5.1. Challenges in High-Temperature Fiber Development
The operating temperature ceiling of ILBWA-CMCs is fundamentally constrained by the thermal stability of available continuous ceramic fibers. Current candidate fibers fall into two functional categories, wave-transparent and wave-absorbing fibers, both of which present notable limitations. On the wave-transparent fiber, Al2O3 fibers (e.g., Nextel series) undergo a detrimental from γ to α phase transformation accompanied by exaggerated grain growth above approximately 1200℃, resulting in severe strength degradation [138]. Quartz fibers similarly suffer from crystallization within the same temperature regime, leading to catastrophic embrittlement [139]. The crystallization onset temperature of Si3N4 fibers is also not higher than 1500℃ [140], [141]. Wave-absorbing SiC fibers confront an intrinsic trade-off between thermal stability and EM performance. Taking wave-absorbing SiC fibers with medium-permittivity and medium-loss as an example (e.g., Cancas 3303, the permittivity of SiCf/epoxy sample is about 6.2-j4.0 with fiber volume fraction of 28% vol.% [109]), when the service temperature exceeds 1400℃, the fibers undergo crystallization [142], [143], [144]. The resulting grain growth not only degrades the fiber strength but also alters their EM properties.
The development of next-generation ceramic fibers, which could withstand temperatures exceeding 1500℃ while simultaneously maintaining tailorable dielectric properties, is the most critical prerequisite for elevating the service temperature of ILBWA-CMCs. Promising avenues include compositional engineering of SiC fibers, exploration of high temperature nitride or carbonitride fiber systems, or low-loss oxide fiber systems.
5.2. Development of High-Strength Wave-Transparent Matrices
In ILBWA-CMCs, the wave-transparent matrix plays a dual role: it modulates the effective dielectric constant to optimize impedance matching, and transfers load to the reinforcing fibers, thereby governing the mechanical performance of the composite. However, the matrices employed in wave-absorbing CMCs fall significantly short of the mechanical benchmarks established by structural-grade CMCs. Current matrix systems are predominantly fabricated via two routes: SiOC or SiBCN matrices fabricated by PIP process and Si3N4 matrix fabricated through CVI process, and all of these matrices’ inherent amorphous/nanocrystalline microstructure results in low intrinsic modulus and strength [145], [146], [147]. In contrast, structural CMCs such as CVI or reactive melt infiltration (RMI) processed SiCf/SiC composites achieve near-full densification and superior mechanical properties [148].
Closing this performance gap demands concerted efforts along two parallel tracks. Firstly, exploring novel wave-transparent matrices, including high-entropy ceramics, layered ceramics, and nanostructured amorphous ceramics with enhanced toughness. Another way is the development of advanced densification strategies such as hybrid CVI and PIP or other process that can simultaneously achieve high relative density and tailored dielectric response.
5.3. Exploration of Ultra-High-Temperature Wave-Transparent Ceramics for Ablation-Resistant Applications
Research on ablation-resistant wave-absorbing materials remains remarkably scarce, primarily because of a fundamental material supply problem: there are exceedingly few ceramic candidates that can simultaneously satisfy the requirements of ultra-high melting point, low dielectric constant, chemical stability, and oxidation resistance. At present, the primary wave-transparent ceramics each exhibit deficiencies that hinder their practical use. Si3N4 decomposes at approximately 1800℃ under inert conditions [149], [150], [151], and the decomposition-induced surface roughening during ablation generates uncontrolled EM scattering that corrupts the designed absorption response [152], [153]. Despite BN has a higher decomposition temperature, it’s plagued by hygroscopicity and poor oxidation resistance, with significant oxidation onset around 800℃ [154]. Among oxide candidates, SiO2 melts at about 1700℃; MgO reacts readily with atmospheric moisture [155]; and although Al2O3 possessing a high melting point (~2050℃), exhibits an intrinsically elevated dielectric constant (~9) [156]. Furthermore, the universal trend of increasing dielectric constant with rising temperature further narrows the already limited candidate pool.
A systematic, high-throughput screening of the vast compositional space of refractory oxides, nitrides, and silicates is urgently needed under the guidance of first-principles predictions of dielectric response and phase stability at high temperature.
5.4. Multiscale Design for Synergistic Optimization of ILBWA-CMCs
The concurrent demands of strong EM absorption and high mechanical load-bearing capacity present a fundamental design conflict. High EM dissipation requires the introduction of abundant heterogeneous interfaces, nanoscale inclusions, and defect structures to enhance polarization loss and conduction loss. High mechanical performance, conversely, demands a dense, flaw-tolerant matrix with optimized fiber-matrix interfacial bonding and multi-level toughening mechanisms. This intrinsic antagonism cannot be resolved through single-scale optimization; it necessitates a coordinated cross-scale design framework.
As reviewed in preceding sections, microstructural engineering at the nano to micro scale (such as the incorporation of nanowires, nanotubes, or graphene-like inclusions) can simultaneously serve dual purposes: the introduced nanophases act as toughening agents that deflect cracks and bridge flaws, while the abundant heterointerfaces can provide additional polarization loss centers that extend effective absorption bandwidth across temperature. At the meso-scale, strategies including hybrid fiber weaving, laminate stacking with graded composition, and spatially nonuniform matrix distribution can be employed to tailor the spatial profile of EM response and internal stress distribution. At the macro-scale, the integration of frequency-selective surfaces (FSS), meta-surfaces, or bio-inspired periodic structures onto the CMC substrate holds promise for further bandwidth expansion and absorption enhancement. The establishment of a rigorous cross-scale design of “micro-scale loss, meso-scale regulation and macro-scale structure” theoretical framework, supported by multi-physics simulation tools capable of coupling EM, thermal, and mechanical fields across length scales, is a promising route.
5.5. Thin-Profile Broadband Absorption Across Wide Temperature Ranges
Macroscopic structural design including Jaumann absorbers, honeycomb structures, and periodic protrusion structure has been extensively employed to broaden the absorption bandwidth of wave-absorbing materials [157], [158], [159]. However, the physical thickness required by these resonant structures, typically exceeding 10 mm, stands in direct contradiction to the "thin, lightweight, wide-band, and strong" design philosophy that governs practical radar-absorbing materials [160], [161], [162].
Promising strategies to overcome this impasse include: Metamaterial and metasurface based absorbers operating in the subwavelength regime, introducing gradient impedance transition structure; introducing periodic wave-absorbing units into the fiber braid that integrate absorption functionality into the load-bearing architecture itself. These approaches may ultimately reconcile the conflict between EM performance and geometrical/mechanical constraints.
5.6. Service Environment Degradation: Multi-Factor Coupling Effects
The predominant focus of current high-temperature wave-absorbing materials research lies in EM functional design under idealized thermal conditions. Systematic investigations into performance evolution under realistic, multi-factor service environments remain conspicuously sparse [163], [164]. Although a limited body of work has addressed high-temperature oxidation behavior, actual service conditions entail a far more complex suite of environmental stressors including water-vapor corrosion, thermal shock cycling, molten salt/salt-spray attack, and high-velocity particulate erosion, which act in simultaneous or sequential combination. Water-vapor exposure provides a representative example of degradation that differs fundamentally from dry oxidation. For SiC and Si3N4, water vapor can promote the formation of a silica scale, while the silica scale can further react with water vapor to form volatile Si(OH)4, resulting in rapid consumption of internal components under high-velocity steam [165], [166]. The representative reaction can be expressed as:(9)SiO2(s)+2H2O(g) → Si(OH)4(g)
Therefore, in combustion or turbine-like environments, a silica scale that is protective in dry air may become unstable in water-vapor-containing flow. This process can thin the protective layer, expose internal lossy phases, accelerate oxidation of SiC/Si3N4, and alter ε′, ε″, impedance matching, and attenuation capability simultaneously.
Fundamentally, the oxidation products formed on matrix and fiber surfaces during environmental corrosion are expected to alter interfacial polarization behavior, modify effective dielectric properties, and disrupt the impedance matching condition upon which absorption performance critically depends. Yet, research on the mechanisms underlying the evolution of materials' EM properties under corrosion environments is extremely rare. Concerted experimental programs are needed to map the EM performance degradation trajectories of candidate wave-absorbing CMCs under standardized, application-relevant multi-factor exposure conditions.
5.7. Quantitative Multiphysics Modeling under Near-Service Environments
Quantitative modeling provides a potential bridge between isolated laboratory measurements and the prediction of absorber performance under near-service environments. Multiphysics finite-element models for SiC/SiC ceramic matrix composites have coupled oxidation kinetics, oxygen diffusion, time-dependent deformation, matrix damage, and fiber degradation [167], [168], [169]. Phase-field approaches developed for environmental-barrier coatings can further describe thermally grown oxide formation, oxidation-induced volume expansion, creep, and crack propagation [170], [171], whereas cohesive-zone models provide quantitative tools for interfacial debonding, fiber/matrix interphase failure, and coating spallation [172], [173], [174]. For microwave-absorbing structures, Yan et al. proposed fully coupled electromagnetic-thermo-mechanical models for honeycomb microwave absorbing structures, in which EM response, temperature field, and mechanical loading are coupled to predict the evolution of absorption performance under multiphysics loading [175].
Nevertheless, the existing models remain fragmented. Electromagnetic-thermo-mechanical models generally neglect oxygen diffusion, oxidation reactions, and irreversible phase evolution, whereas thermo-mechanical-oxidative models for CMCs and coatings do not usually calculate the corresponding changes in microwave impedance and attenuation. In particular, the complex permittivity is often prescribed only as functions of temperature, without accounting for their dependence on oxygen concentration, oxide-scale thickness, phase fraction, crack density, and conductive-network degradation. Therefore, current models cannot yet quantitatively predict the simultaneous evolution of structural reliability and electromagnetic absorption under realistic service conditions.
Although electromagnetic-thermo-mechanical models for absorbing structures and thermo-mechanical-oxidative models for CMCs have been reported, a unified modeling framework for high-temperature wave-absorbing CMCs and coatings is still lacking. It is desirable that future models establish a quantitative correlation between the intrinsic EM performance of the material and the influencing factors including frequency, temperature, oxygen partial pressure (or concentration), phase volume fractions, and internal damage. Such models would enable the prediction of impedance-matching drift, attenuation degradation, coating spallation, and mechanical reliability under near-service environments.
5.8. Radar & Infrared Compatible Stealth at Elevated Temperatures
The progressive fusion of reconnaissance and guidance technologies into multi-mode detection systems has made single-band stealth insufficient for modern warfare scenarios. For high-temperature wave-absorbing materials, the challenge is compounded by the fact that objects at elevated temperatures are inherently strong infrared (IR) emitters. The fundamental physical difficulty in achieving simultaneous radar and IR stealth lies in the contradictory requirements imposed by the two modalities [126], [176], [177], [178]. Radar stealth demands low EM reflectivity, whereas IR stealth demands low emissivity in the atmospheric transmission windows which is equivalent to high reflectivity. This dichotomy, inherent to any homogeneous material, can only be circumvented through spectrally selective structures that exhibit different EM responses in the microwave and infrared frequency ranges. This creates a natural conflict between the two materials in terms of their underlying design mechanisms.
Promising approaches include FSS-based selective thermal emission [177] and photonic crystal bandgap engineering [179], [180] which have been demonstrated to be feasible at room temperature. In future research work, the application of these strategies on CMCs will become a research focus on radar and infrared compatible stealth design at elevated temperatures.
5.9. Inverse Design and Physics-Guided Optimization under Coupled Service Constraints
The design of high-temperature broadband absorbers involves a high-dimensional parameter space, including material composition, loss-phase content, interfacial structure, porosity, layer thickness, macrostructural geometry, and processing conditions. Conventional trial-and-error approaches are inefficient because these variables simultaneously affect temperature-dependent EM parameters, impedance matching, oxidation behavior, and mechanical reliability [181], [182], [183], [184], [185]. Machine learning and inverse design have demonstrated considerable potential in related broadband absorbers and EM metastructures by establishing rapid surrogate relationships between material-structure parameters and absorption performance. However, their direct application to high-temperature absorbers remains at an early stage. A major challenge is that high-temperature EM datasets are generally sparse and heterogeneous, with substantial differences in testing frequency, temperature, atmosphere, thickness, and measurement configuration. Purely data-driven models may therefore exhibit poor extrapolation and may generate solutions that violate physical laws or processing constraints [186], [187], [188].
Future studies should establish standardized databases integrating composition, processing parameters, microstructure, temperature-dependent complex permittivity, oxidation kinetics, and mechanical properties. Multi-fidelity learning can combine analytical calculations, full-wave EM simulations, multiphysics finite-element results, and limited high-temperature experiments, while Bayesian optimization and active learning can identify the most informative candidate materials, structures, and experimental conditions. Physics-guided optimization should incorporate transmission-line theory or Maxwell equations, heat transfer, oxygen diffusion, oxidation kinetics, thermal stress, and damage evolution into the surrogate-model architecture, loss function, or optimization constraints. Ultimately, a closed-loop framework linking data collection, physics-guided surrogate modeling, multi-objective inverse design, material preparation, high-temperature characterization, and experimental validation may enable service-oriented development of high-temperature broadband absorbers under coupled thermal-mechanical-oxidative constraints.
6. Summary and Perspectives
High-temperature EM wave-absorbing materials are indispensable for stealth, EM compatibility, and communication-related functions in aerospace systems operating under extreme thermal environments. Their development, however, is governed by a hierarchy of challenges. At the intrinsic level, high temperature suppresses magnetic loss, shifts dielectric parameters, and intensifies the conflict between impedance matching and EM attenuation. At the single-factor environmental level, oxidation, crystallization, decomposition, and interface reactions modify phase composition and destabilize the EM wave loss ability. At the near-service level, thermal, mechanical, and oxygen-related fields couple to produce cracking, coating spallation, interfacial oxidation, mechanical degradation, and EM failure. Recent progress can therefore be understood as a transition from intrinsic dielectric design to phase-stability control and, ultimately, to structural reliability under coupled fields.
(1) Intrinsic EM design. Above the Curie temperature of most magnetic phases, high-temperature absorbers rely mainly on conductivity loss and polarization loss. This constraint narrows the impedance-matching window and makes absorption highly sensitive to temperature-induced permittivity drift. Microstructural and compositional design can stabilize dielectric response by balancing conductivity loss with polarization loss, thereby enabling temperature-insensitive absorption. Frequency-dispersion engineering further expands the absorption bandwidth by matching dielectric parameters over a wider frequency range. Macrostructural resonance reduces the dependence of absorption on intrinsic dielectric parameters and provides an additional route to broadband, wide-temperature-range performance.
(2) Single-factor destabilization. Oxidation and heat-induced phase evolution can invalidate intrinsic EM design by consuming loss phases, breaking conductive networks, generating wave-transparent oxides, or shifting the crystallization state of amorphous components. Oxygen-barrier coatings, oxidation-resistant absorbers, and high-entropy ceramic loss phases can improve EM stability in oxidizing environments. For amorphous or polymer-derived ceramic phases, controlled pre-crystallization, compositional stabilization, or crystallization inhibition can reduce irreversible permittivity shifts and preserve impedance matching during high-temperature exposure.
(3) Coupled service-environment reliability. Under near-service conditions, EM stability must be integrated with load-bearing capability, oxidation resistance, thermal-shock tolerance, and coating adhesion. In ILBWA-CMCs, oxygen ingress can oxidize fibers and interphases, reduce fiber strength, suppress interfacial toughening, and degrade both mechanical and EM performance. Oxidation-resistant coatings and self-healing matrices can mitigate these effects, but their dielectric properties must remain compatible with impedance matching. For high-temperature absorbing coatings, millimeter-scale EM thickness intensifies thermal-expansion mismatch and promotes cracking or spallation; therefore, adhesion design, graded architectures, and environmental resistance are as important as dielectric optimization.
(4) Future directions. Future research should move from isolated EM optimization toward multiscale and near-service environment. First, macro-micro multiscale architectures should be further developed to combine temperature-insensitive dielectric loss with structural resonance, thereby achieving broadband absorption over wide temperature ranges. Second, oxidation-stable loss phases, including high-entropy absorbers and intrinsically oxidation-resistant ceramics, are needed to maintain dielectric response during long-term oxidation exposure. Third, ILBWA-CMCs require high-strength wave-transparent matrices and optimized interphases that preserve both toughness and impedance matching. Fourth, research on the water-vapor corrosion behavior and its resistance of ILBWA-CMCs is still lacking, and the evolution of the mechanical and EM properties of such materials under extreme corrosive environments remains unclear. Finally, most current absorbers operate below approximately 1500℃. Materials and structures capable of maintaining absorption in ultrahigh-temperature or ablation environments remain an open frontier.
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