Materials for sustainable lunar exploration: from extreme environment challenges to adaptive material systems

Fei Li; Wenzheng Zhang; Yang Lyu; Xinghong Zhang

doi:10.1016/j.exm.2026.100048

Extreme Materials ›› 2026, Vol. 2 ›› Issue (3) : 100048 DOI: 10.1016/j.exm.2026.100048

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Materials for sustainable lunar exploration: from extreme environment challenges to adaptive material systems

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Abstract

The Moon has long inspired humanity’s imagination of the unknown. For thousands of years, it has remained a distant world that humans could gaze up but could not reach. Since the beginning of the 21st century, new lunar exploration programs have greatly expanded the understanding of the Moon, while a return of humans to the lunar surface is becoming a reality. The Moon is expected to become an important platform for future deep-space exploration. The lunar surface is characterized by extreme environments, including vacuum and low gravity, large temperature gradients, intense radiation, micrometeoroid impact, lunar dust, and energy limitations, which pose significant challenges to the long-term reliability and environmental adaptability of materials for lunar exploration. This perspective argues that the future of materials for lunar exploration lies not in discovering a single superior material, but in designing environment-adaptive material systems through the integration of materials, structures, and manufacturing strategies.

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Extreme lunar environments / Materials for lunar exploration / Lunar regolith / In situ resource utilization

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Fei Li, Wenzheng Zhang, Yang Lyu, Xinghong Zhang. Materials for sustainable lunar exploration: from extreme environment challenges to adaptive material systems. Extreme Materials, 2026, 2(3): 100048 DOI:10.1016/j.exm.2026.100048

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1. Introduction

The Moon, as the closest natural satellite to the Earth, provides an important window for understanding extraterrestrial bodies and the evolution of the universe. Through long-term lunar exploration, significant progress has been made in key scientific areas such as the Moon's material composition, evolutionary history, and the utilization of its resources [1 -8] . As lunar exploration gradually shifts from scientific understanding toward long-term habitation and resource utilization, the development of materials and structural systems capable of supporting sustainable lunar surface activities has become a critical technological need [1,3,9,10].

Unlike the terrestrial environment, the Moon lacks an atmosphere and global magnetic field, leaving materials on its surface exposed to extreme environments, including high vacuum, low gravity, large temperature fluctuations, intense radiation, micrometeoroid impacts, and lunar dust, while also facing engineering constraints such as energy limitations [1,3]. These factors can affect the performance of materials through mechanisms such as outgassing, thermal fatigue, radiation damage, impact erosion, and frictional wear, and can interact to produce complex coupled effects [8,9,11 -15] . Future materials for lunar exploration should move beyond the conventional approach of optimizing performance against individual environmental factors and instead develop highly reliable materials and structural systems designed for long-term service under multiple coupled extreme lunar environments.

Currently, the development of materials for lunar exploration is proceeding along two complementary paths [1,3,16]: first, utilizing high-performance materials manufactured on the Earth to meet critical functional requirements; and second, converting lunar regolith into construction and protective materials through in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) to support large-scale infrastructure development. These two approaches are not mutually exclusive but are more likely to complement each other’s strengths in future lunar activities. However, compared to material preparation and performance optimization, existing research still lacks an in-depth understanding of how materials behave during long-term service in the real lunar environments [11,17 -22]. Therefore, shifting from evaluating adaptability to a single environment to assessing long-term reliability in complex environments would be a key issue that should be addressed in the future development of materials for lunar surface applications [10,13,15,23 -27].

This perspective outlines the major extreme-environment challenges faced by future lunar surface activities and summarizes the mitigation strategies [1 -3,10,28,29]. It further discusses how materials for long-term lunar surface applications can evolve through the coordinated development of materials design, structural optimization, and advanced manufacturing. This perspective argues that the future of the development of materials for lunar exploration does not lie in seeking a single material capable of independently withstanding all extreme environments, but in establishing an environmentally adaptive material systems that integrates materials, structures, manufacturing, and resource utilization, thereby providing materials science support for long-term, safe, and sustainable lunar activities.

2. Extreme lunar environments and adaptation strategies

As lunar exploration expands from scientific research to resource utilization and lunar infrastructure construction, adapting to the extreme lunar environments has become a key issue. The following sections briefly introduce the extreme-environment challenges and strategies to address them. Fig. 1 summarizes the key environmental challenges on the lunar surface, the corresponding material design requirements, material design requirements, material innovation strategies, and representative lunar application scenarios.

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2.1 Vacuum and low gravity

The lunar atmosphere is extremely tenuous, with a pressure of only ~3 × 10^-15 bar [3], while the lunar gravity is approximately one-sixth that of the Earth [11]. The near-vacuum and low-gravity environment on the Moon can significantly affect both material processing and service behavior. Under vacuum, water and other volatile components can readily escape, a process known as outgassing [1,3]. The outgassing and subsequent deposition of volatile species may also interfere with equipment operation. To ensure that material outgassing remains within acceptable limits, the space industry commonly uses two criteria: total mass loss below 0.1% and collected volatile condensable material below 0.01% [3] . Low gravity can alter material deposition, compaction, and fluid transport, potentially reducing deposition stability and interlayer bonding in additive manufacturing and increasing porosity. To address these challenges, considerable efforts have focused on developing low- or binder-free feedstocks for additive manufacturing, exploring various sintering techniques, including solar, microwave, laser, and vacuum sintering, and developing additive manufacturing methods suitable for low-gravity conditions, together with ground-based simulations and validation. Nevertheless, validation of the long-term reliability of materials under vacuum and low gravity is still limited.

2.2 Large temperature gradients

The lunar surface lacks an atmosphere to provide thermal buffering, resulting in large temperature fluctuations under the lunar diurnal cycle. In equatorial regions, the surface temperature can decrease from approximately 387-397 K to 95 K, corresponding to the lunar-diurnal-cycle induced temperature difference of nearly 300 K [11]. Heat transfer on the Moon occurs mainly through radiation, leading to large temperature differences between sun-facing and shaded areas of objects such as landers, rovers, and habitats [3]. Long-term thermal cycling can cause thermal fatigue, interfacial cracking, and degradation of material and structural properties, requiring materials with high thermal stability and resistance to thermal cycling. Various approaches, including lunar regolith coverage, geopolymers, and multilayer insulation coatings, have been investigated for thermal protection and thermal management. NASA studies have shown that at depths greater than 80 cm below the lunar surface [3], the temperature no longer varies significantly with the lunar diurnal cycle, suggesting that covering lunar bases and habitats with a sufficiently thick layer of regolith could help mitigate the large temperature fluctuations. In addition, the geopolymers and sulfur-based concretes exhibit interfacial delamination, microcracks, and performance degradation after thermal cycling [1]. The long-term stability of the materials still requires further verification.

2.3 Intense radiation

The lunar surface is primarily exposed to galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) and solar energetic particles (SEPs) [18]. GCRs have high penetrating power, while SEPs can produce intense radiation fluxes during solar eruptions, posing direct risks to astronauts and instruments on the lunar surface [17 -20,22]. Effective radiation shielding is therefore essential for lunar surface infrastructure. Simulation studies suggest that 50-80 cm of lunar regolith can provide effective shielding against the intense radiation [19,30] . Sulfur concrete and regolith-based systems containing small amounts of polyethylene have also shown potential for further improving shielding efficiency [1]. Nevertheless, the high radiation exposure associated with lunar surface activities, including rover operations, remains an important concern. The Chang’E-4 lander provided the first in-situ measurements of radiation dose on the lunar surface, reporting a radiation dose rate approximately 200 times that at the surface of the Earth [8]. These measurements also suggest that the lunar surface may be more suitable for long-term human exploration than previously expected. However, current material designs often treat radiation shielding as an isolated requirement. Future development should instead consider the long-term performance of radiation-shielding layers under repeated extreme thermal cycling, as well as their stability and compatibility with the underlying structures.

2.4 Micrometeoroid impact

The Moon lacks protective atmosphere, allowing micrometeoroids to strike lunar surface facilities at speeds of approximately 3-70 km/s, causing damage such as direct penetration, secondary ejecta, and cumulative fatigue [1,11,25,29]. Therefore, materials must possess excellent resistance to high-speed impacts and high damage tolerance. Currently, several technical approaches have been established, including active mitigation and passive shielding methods such as high-performance protective materials, multilayer protective structures, and in-situ protection using lunar regolith [29] . For example, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene exhibits good penetration resistance under impact conditions of 10 km/s [1]. Foam aluminum/encapsulation layer composite structures can significantly dissipate impact energy [1]. For stationary lunar infrastructure such as lunar bases, structures covered or partially buried in lunar regolith can provide both impact and radiation protection [29]. High-performance polymers still rely on Earth-based supplies, and the toughness, crack resistance, and damage tolerance of regolith-based materials still need to be improved. Moreover, thicker regolith cover would increase excavation volume, construction complexity, and energy requirements. Micrometeoroid impacts span a wide range of sizes and energies, from frequent impacts by small particles to rare but highly energetic impacts by larger particles. This broad impact environment poses a persistent challenge to the durability and reliability of lunar equipment and infrastructure. In future material design for lunar surface applications, special attention should be given to long-term cumulative damage, surface erosion, and performance degradation caused by micrometeoroids.

2.5 Lunar dust

Lunar dust is a major challenge for future lunar exploration and long-term lunar base construction [2,10,14,15,28,31,32]. Lunar dust mainly consists of fine particles from the lunar regolith, typically with particle sizes below 20 μm. Its major constituents include approximately 50% SiO₂, 15% Al₂O₃, 10% CaO, 10% MgO, 5% TiO₂, and 5-15% Fe [1,14,28]. With its fine particle size, irregular morphology, and tendency to become electrostatically charged, lunar dust can adhere to material surfaces, cause mechanical wear, degrade thermal-control and optical performance, and pose health risks to astronauts. Active and passive lunar dust mitigation strategies have been developed to address the challenges caused by lunar dust [10]. Technologies such as lotus-leaf-inspired coatings, electrodynamic dust shields, and laser ablative patterning have shown promising results [1,10,33]. However, most existing technologies have been validated mainly under ground-based simulated lunar environments. Their long-term reliability, performance under combined extreme temperature and radiation exposure, and overall protection capability in complex lunar dust environments remain insufficiently understood.

Plume-surface interactions (PSI) refer to the physical processes resulting from the interaction between spacecraft engine exhaust and the lunar surface [2,13,34]. PSI represent an important dynamic factor that can trigger and aggravate lunar dust hazards. Under the vacuum low gravity conditions, high-speed engine plumes can directly interact with loose lunar regolith, causing particle ejection, dust transport, and high-velocity impacts [2]. These processes can increase dust deposition, surface erosion, and equipment contamination, potentially affecting the safe operation of landers and nearby lunar infrastructure. Numerical simulations, ground-based vacuum tests, and experiments using lunar regolith simulants have been used to investigate PSI and potential mitigation strategies, including landing-site optimization, structural protection, and active mitigation [2,21,35] . However, particle transport induced by plumes under actual lunar environments, the coupled mechanisms across different length scales, and the long-term effects of cumulative damage remain insufficiently understood. Further development of reliable predictive methods, together with erosion-resistant and dust-resistant materials and structural protection strategies, is therefore needed.

2.6 Energy limitations

Energy is essential for lunar infrastructure construction. Although solar energy is the most readily available in-situ energy source, its availability is limited by the lunar diurnal cycle and local illumination conditions [1,3] . Processes such as lunar regolith sintering, excavation, and material processing require substantial energy. Solar sintering and microwave sintering have been investigated as approaches that directly use lunar solar or electromagnetic energy for material processing, with microwave sintering showing potential for reducing energy consumption. In addition, integrated systems combining solar power, energy storage, and auxiliary energy sources have been proposed to improve the continuity of energy supply [1,3,36]. Nuclear fission has also been considered as a potential option for providing reliable long-term power. Nuclear power systems involve additional concerns related to safety and system integration. Future efforts should therefore focus on reducing the energy consumption of material processing and improving the coordination between material manufacturing processes and energy systems.

2.7 Adaptation strategies

To address the extreme lunar environments described above, NASA established the Lunar Surface Innovation Initiative (LSII) to support human return to the Moon [3]. LSII identified six priority technology areas: ISRU, surface power, extreme access, excavation and construction, lunar dust mitigation, and extreme environments. Among these six primary capability areas, ISRU is a key foundation for sustained human presence on the Moon [1 -3,10,15,37,38]. Because transporting materials from the Earth to the Moon is extremely costly, Earth-manufactured high-performance materials may be suitable for critical components but are unlikely to support large-scale infrastructure construction. Lunar regolith is an important resource for lunar infrastructure construction. Current research on lunar regolith-based materials has mainly focused on direct forming and sintering. For example, through methods such as solar sintering, microwave sintering, and laser sintering, it is possible to utilize the silicate minerals and oxide components in lunar regolith to form structural materials [1,3]. A team from Donghua University used lunar regolith as raw material to produce continuous fibers, providing a reference for applications such as flexible structural materials and the reinforcement of lunar regolith-based concrete. With the advancement of additive manufacturing technologies, it is gradually becoming possible to construct complex structures using lunar regolith as raw material [39]. Such technologies can reduce the need for material transportation from the Earth and provide new pathways for future large-scale lunar infrastructure construction.

It is important to recognize that materials manufactured in situ from lunar regolith do not perform the same functions as engineering materials from the Earth. Due to the complex composition of lunar regolith and significant variations in its composition, materials prepared from it are generally more suitable for load-bearing structures, radiation shielding layers, and large-volume building components. For high-reliability mechanical parts, precision motion mechanisms, and functional materials designed for extreme environments, it remains difficult to fully replace the materials from the Earth. The future development of material systems for lunar exploration will not simply involve replacing Earth-based materials with lunar-derived ones but is more likely to take the form of a synergistic model. High-performance materials manufactured on the Earth will continue to be used for critical functional components, while in-situ lunar resources will be utilized to construct large-scale infrastructure. This development path may represent a more realistic technical approach for long-term lunar activities in the future.

3 Summary and perspectives

The major challenges for future materials for lunar surface applications are not to address the six extreme lunar environments separately, but to meet the requirements of long-term service under their combined effects through the integrated design of materials, structures, and manufacturing processes. These extreme lunar environments can interact with each other and collectively determine the materials degradation and the reliability of engineering systems. Future material design and evaluation should move beyond the optimization of individual performance metrics toward improving overall stability and reliability under complex lunar environments. Great efforts have demonstrated the feasibility of using lunar regolith to produce engineering materials. Moreover, the challenges for practical application shift to verify and improve the long-term service reliability of the materials under actual lunar environments. Existing studies still rely largely on lunar regolith simulants and ground-based experiments. The evolution of material properties under the combined effects of the extreme lunar environments remains poorly understood. The development of a comprehensive evaluation system that more closely simulates actual lunar environments is needed to elucidate the mechanisms of material degradation under multi-field coupling and to establish design and prediction methods for long-term service.

Future development of material systems for lunar applications should also integrate considerations of the balance among performance, resources, energy, and manufacturing capabilities. High-performance materials manufactured on Earth and in-situ resources are not mutually exclusive. Rather, they should be synergistically configured according to mission requirements. At the same time, the development of autonomous intelligent unmanned systems and artificial intelligence will provide critical support for robotic construction on the Moon. Through intelligent planning, autonomous decision-making, and unmanned manufacturing, these advancements will enhance capabilities for material processing, structural construction, and infrastructure deployment in extreme lunar environments. In the future, the integration of material design, structural optimization, intelligent manufacturing, and resource utilization technologies to establish a lunar engineering system characterized by low energy consumption, reduced dependence on the Earth, and scalability will be key directions for achieving sustainable lunar exploration.

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